The First Battery-Powered Electric Submarine: The Ictineo I
The history of submarines is a fascinating one, with numerous technological advancements contributing to their development. One significant milestone in submarine history was the creation of the first battery-powered electric submarine, known as the Ictineo I.
Narcís Monturiol (1819–1885) played an essential role in the history of submarine navigation. He was a person of strong convictions and fought for democracy at a time of changes and political convulsions in the Spanish society. Utopian republican and socialist, he spread the Communist ideas of Étienne Cabet in Catalonia, organizing the Cabetians around the weekly, La Fraternidad (1847–1848). He also became the leader of the Icarian community in Barcelona. Frequently persecuted because of his political beliefs, he was often forced to seek refuge in Cadaqués, and it was there that he conceived his project of a submarine vessel, the Ictineu. Although treated with mistrust by the authorities, he was able to secure sufficient financial and technical support to carry out the project.
Together with a team of technicians, he constructed the first Ictineu, which was launched in the waters of Barcelona in 1859, Subsequent improvements led to a second Ictineu, launched in 1864 and fitted in 1867 with a steam engine.
However, economic difficulties led to eventual failure. As an autodidact, Monturiol received the support of Barcelona’s scientific elite and continued inventing until his death. His work, Ensayo sobre el arte de navegar por debajo del agua (Essay on the Art of Navigating Under Water), was a pioneering, monumental work about submarine navigation and a remarkable contribution to the historiography of science and technology.
The engineer, inventor, and political activist Narcís Monturiol Estarriol (Figueres, Spain, 1819–Sant Andreu de Palomar, Barcelona, Spain, 1885) has recently gained well-deserved recognition not only in Catalonia and Spain but also internationally, following publication of the 2003 biography by Matthew Stewart. While Monturiol’s work is fixed within Romanticism, his interpretation of it was not as a historically idealized past; rather, it was based on the belief that these ideals could inspire the future.
Monturiol’s near-mythic role in the history of science in Catalonia has been discussed elsewhere. This review focuses on Monturiol’s many social and technological endeavors and his attempts to realize them. Although during his lifetime he very often met with commercial failure and political disappointment, his achievements in both areas were nonetheless frequently re-examined, elaborated upon, and publicized, both by his devotees and fellow intellectuals and, later, by historians and other academics.
Development of the Ictineo I
It was during this stay in Cadaqués in 1856 that Monturiol conceived his project for underwater navigation.
His source of inspiration was the coral harvesters, whose hardships he witnessed daily. While his invention would be philanthropically motivated, Monturiol also recognized that coral gathering could
be a means to profit from underwater navigation. According to Robert Robert, Monturiol had been pondering an attempt at underwater navigation for several years:
“Considering that during the persecution, the events of 1848 attracted men of advanced ideas, Narcís Monturiol was
confronted with a pitiful and frequent scene in Cabo de Creus, such that the faculties and feelings that characterize
him most would not fail to stir within him; because we should not dismiss a particular aspect: the invention of the Ictineo was due more to a love for humanity than a love for science.
If we did not have to hold this text to a few short paragraphs, we would be able to pause and take up this and other
points; here, we shall simply point out that the harvesting of valuable coral and the relatively scarce fruits born to those
that dedicate their livelihood to this miserable industry were the motives that incited Narcís Monturiol...”
At the same time, however, Monturiol appreciated the considerable scientific interest that exploring the depths of the sea would generate. This “new continent,” as he called it, would doubtlessly yield great benefits to humankind. But harvesting and exploration were not the only intended ends; like his predecessors, Monturiol saw military applications for underwater navigation, even though in the first few attempts this aspect was relegated to a very secondary role.
Monturiol’s underwater navigation project was quite complex. Firstly, he proposed a design in the shape of a fish, which is why it would be named “Ictíneo,” or Ictineu, in Catalan, a neologism based on the Greek words for fish and boat.
It was a double vessel, the exterior in the form of a fish, in order to obtain hydrodynamic properties, and the cylindrical interior to provide lodging for the crew. Secondly, he came up
with a set of navigational systems, including the means of propulsion, immersion and re-surfacing, isolation of the interior chamber, and air renewal.
Thanks to Monturiol’s published reports as well as the accounts published by colleagues and collaborators, such as Robert Robert in 1861, there is extensive documentation of their development, which would take place over the next 10 years, from 1857 to December of 1867.
In 1859, two years after setting up a company in Figueres and forming a work team, Monturiol was able to launch the first
Ictineu, an event that took place in the Barcelona Harbor.
The vessel had been built by mestre d’aixa (‘master boatbuilder’) Josep Missé i Castells, who was a member of the first crew along with Josep Oliu and Monturiol himself. From then on, the trial Ictineu (or Ictineu I) would carry out several immersions, some of them for the government authorities, the one in Barcelona in September of 1860 and, later, in May of 1861, in Alicante. The social impact of Monturiol’s innovation was significant.
The many support groups that sprang up throughout the region would later contribute financially to the project. However, the test in Alicante proved rather disappointing to Monturiol, since the Minister of the Navy was skeptical of using the Ictineu as a vessel of war. Monturiol then went to Madrid to try to obtain financial aid from the government. In a letter to Queen Isabel II, he emphasized the “war” version of the Ictineu, with the scientific or commercial version left for the public domain.
Monturiol returned to Barcelona rejected and disillusioned, but he was applauded as a hero. Perhaps that is why he found
the strength to continue, hoping to acquire private financing to build an operative Ictineu. He was received triumphantly in Barcelona, Girona, Figueres, and Cadaqués, where concerts, theatrical representations, assemblies, and other events were held in his honor.
When Monturiol and his colleagues were certain that they could not count on the government’s support, they started fundraising efforts for the construction of a fully operational Ictineu.
They were supported by many of the old members of the Barcelona Cabetian cell, such as the musician Josep Anselm Clavé, the novelist Antoni Altadill, and the physician Francesc Sunyer Capdevila. To amass the necessary donations as well as funds from investors, the company La Navegación Submarina (Underwater Navigation) was formed in Barcelona in 1864, with Joan Tutau, of Figueres, as president.
The company established a new technical office and employed the naval architect Joan Monjo. He had already designed Ictineu I, although at the time without being an official member of the technical team.
Construction of the second Ictineu was again headed up by Josep Missé. Among the new team members were master boatbuilders, artisans, and technicians.
The limitations of the first Ictineu, which would render it of little use for subsequent applications, were not just in terms of space but also navigation, especially the fact that it could not travel any faster than one mile per hour.
Although academic studies have since affirmed that the Ictineu indeed could have grave navigational difficulties, this is not indicated in the majority of testimonies from the era.
In the second Ictineu, certain shortfalls persisted even though Monturiol introduced novel improvements, such as the system for air renewal.
He and his team concentrated on propulsion, which was manual, and considered installing a motor.
The Ictineo I was designed and built by Narcís Monturiol, a Spanish engineer and inventor, in the mid-19th century. Monturiol was inspired by the idea of exploring the depths of the ocean and believed that submarines could revolutionize underwater exploration.
In 1857, Monturiol launched the Ictineo I, which was powered by an innovative electric battery system. This made it the first submarine of its kind, breaking new ground in submarine technology.
The Electric Battery System
The Ictineo I was equipped with a unique electric battery system that allowed it to operate underwater. The submarine was powered by a series of rechargeable batteries, which provided the necessary electrical energy for propulsion.
This groundbreaking innovation eliminated the need for surface air supply, giving the Ictineo I the ability to stay submerged for extended periods of time. The electric battery system was a significant advancement in submarine design, ultimately paving the way for future developments in underwater technology.
Legacy and Impact
The Ictineo I played a crucial role in the evolution of submarine technology. While it was not a military vessel and primarily served scientific and exploration purposes, its success inspired further advancements in submarine design.
Monturiol's work on the Ictineo I laid the foundation for future submarines, influencing subsequent inventors and engineers in their pursuit of underwater exploration. The electric battery system pioneered in the Ictineo I became a fundamental component of later submarines, contributing to their increased range, endurance, and overall efficiency.
Comparison between the two Ictineus
Ictineu I Ictineu II Length 7 m 17 m
Width 2.5 m 3 m
Maximum Height 3.5 m 3,5 m
Section of inner chamber Elliptical Circular
Length of inner chamber 14 m
Capacity of inner chamber 7 m3 29 m3
Speed on surface 0.9 km/h 1-3.5 km/h
Power on surface 4 men 16 men/ 6 HP
Power underwater 4 men 16 men/ 2 HP
Calculated depth 40 m 50 m
Actual depth 20 m 30 m
Crew 5 men 20 men
Monturiol the inventor
In a letter dated 21 March 1874, written to his wife Emilia while in Madrid, Monturiol defined himself as an inventor, after mentioning that he had done all kinds of work: “journalist, typesetter, printer, notebook maker, portraitist, a man of science, inventor...and will possibly die poor”.
From this point on, we will review Monturiol’s main inventions, setting aside his underwater navigation project. A machine for printing the notebooks of lined paper used by school children and students was Monturiol’s first known mechanical invention. Previously, the pages were manually cut, but Monturiol designed engraved cylinders equipped with a special system to supply them with ink. Thus, a sheet of paper on a paper roll would be stamped and then mechanically cut by a small saw as it left the cylinder.
The simple movement of a crank allowed the cutting and folding of the notebooks from the roll of paper. Monturiol teamed up with Josep Oliu, then a revolutionary colleague, to capitalize on the invention.
Technically, the machine worked, but not the business side of the venture. Later, the machine was bought by a textbook
publisher. In more economically adept hands, it could have made a fortune, but, despite his many skills, Monturiol lacked the business acumen to profit from either it or most of his other inventions, as discussed below. Besides underwater navigation and the Ictineu, surely Monturiol’s most outstanding invention was a machine for manufacturing cigarettes. According to Calvet, Monturiol invented it with the help of a friend while working on the Ictineu.
In 1866, confronted with financial problems from the expenses generated in installing the steam engine for the Ictineu II, Monturiol patented the machine, with the goal of securing a source of additional income. According to the patent document, the machine’s shape was similar to that of a power loom; the cut tobacco was introduced into a funnel; the machine made 22 movements and produced 45 cigarettes per minute.
It included an attachment that pushed the finished cigarettes into a box. Monturiol offered the machine to the Sucini brand in Havana but it seems that, in the end, the company refused to pay the asking price of 30,000 duros (1 duro = 5 pesetas) for the machine and the patent. Monturiol then intended to distribute the cigarette-producing machine and to profit from it himself. On 3 March 1867, he formed a company with Frederic Borràs, Josep Oliu, and others for its production and distribution, ceding rights to the invention to the Borràs i Cia. company, in which he was a shareholder.
In 1870, in accordance with the shareholders interests, he tried introducing the machines to state-run factories. The machines were exhibited by Borràs at the General Catalan Exhibition celebrated in Barcelona in 1871, where it received a medal. At the start of 1871, the Tobacco Administration allowed one of the machines to be used in the manufacture of cigarettes.
Nevertheless, it was not well received by Madrid cigarette makers and in a factory riot on 7 June 1872 it was destroyed. A long line of legal processes was necessary to recIn a letter dated 21 March 1874, written to his wife Emilia while in Madrid, Monturiol defined himself as an inventor, after mentioning that he had done all kinds of work: “journalist, typesetter, printer, notebook maker, portraitist, a man of science, inventor...and will possibly die poor”.
From this point on, we will review Monturiol’s main inventions, setting aside his underwater navigation project. A machine for printing the notebooks of lined paper used by school children and students was Monturiol’s first known mechanical invention. Previously, the pages were manually cut, but Monturiol designed engraved cylinders equipped with a special system to supply them with ink. Thus, a sheet of paper on a paper roll would be stamped and then mechanically cut by a small saw as it left the cylinder.
The simple movement of a crank allowed the cutting and folding of the notebooks from the roll of paper. Monturiol teamed up with Josep Oliu, then a revolutionary colleague, to capitalize on the invention.
Technically, the machine worked, but not the business side of the venture. Later, the machine was bought by a textbook publisher. In more economically adept hands, it could have made a fortune, but, despite his many skills, Monturiol lacked the business acumen to profit from either it or most of his other inventions, as discussed below.
Besides underwater navigation and the Ictineu, surely Monturiol’s most outstanding invention was a machine for manufacturing cigarettes. According to Calvet, Monturiol invented it with the help of a friend while working on the Ictineu. In
1866, confronted with financial problems from the expenses generated in installing the steam engine for the Ictineu II, Monturiol patented the machine, with the goal of securing a source of additional income. According to the patent document, the machine’s shape was similar to that of a power loom; the cut tobacco was introduced into a funnel; the machine made 22 movements and produced 45 cigarettes per minute. It included an attachment that pushed the finished cigarettes into a box.
Monturiol offered the machine to the Sucini brand in Havana but it seems that, in the end, the company refused to pay the asking price of 30,000 duros (1 duro = 5 pesetas) for the machine and the patent. Monturiol then intended to distribute the cigarette-producing machine and to profit from it himself. On 3 March 1867, he formed a company with Frederic Borràs, Josep Oliu, and others for its production and distribution, ceding rights to the invention to the Borràs i Cia. company, in which he was a shareholder. In 1870, in accordance with the shareholders interests, he tried introducing the machines to state-run factories. The machines were exhibited by Borràs at the General Catalan Exhibition celebrated in Barcelona in 1871, where it received a medal.
At the start of 1871, the Tobacco Administration allowed one of the machines to be used in the manufacture of cigarettes. Nevertheless, it was not well received by Madrid cigarette makers and in a factory riot on 7 June 1872 it was destroyed. A long line of legal processes was necessary to receive the 19,940-peseta compensation, which finally occurred on 21 September 1874. Around the same time, Borràs sought to disassociate himself from Monturiol and managed to appropriate the invention. Although at first it was commercially successful, Borràs ended up insolvent and went bankrupt. Nonetheless, at
the time of Monturiol’s death, many of these machines had been built and were being used in tobacco factories in Cuba,
Mexico, and Portugal. Monturiol perfected the prototype, managing to create a smaller, tabletop version that could be hand operated by one person and which quickly rolled the cigarettes one-by-one. This was the only invention that produced an inheritance for Monturiol’s family.
When Monturiol was in Madrid in 1873, he was named director of the National Stamp Factory. The Minister of the Treasury ordered the creation of an enormous quantity of stamps intended to raise funds for a new war tax. They had to be made
in such short order that there was hardly time to apply the glue to the stamps. Monturiol considered installing vapor dryers, but no manufacturer would commit to having the needed coils and tubes ready on time.
With the collaboration of the factory’s metalworkers, he built a drying system for glue-bonded stamp paper and, before the Ministry’s due date, one million stamps were being made daily.
As mentioned earlier, in the year 1873, during the First Republic, Monturiol was a deputy in Congress. The Republic had
formed shortly after the outbreak of the Third Carlist War. The conflict seems to have been the motivation behind Monturiol’s invention of a new device, which he referred to as a “successive discharge cannon.” This was a field cannon intended for use by the infantry and based on the incomplete combustion of
the powder used in normal cannons. He believed that by dividing the charges into separate layers, a bigger effect could be
produced, since the combustion would come off completely and the projectile would receive the full force of the charge.
The cannon weighed 176 pounds (including the case), which made it easily transportable by mule through mountainous and treacherous terrain. It had a range of up to 2187 yards and the
price of each cannon was about 1000 pesetas.
At the beginning of 1874, Monturiol began to redesign the small cannon known as a culverin. His bronze “portable-cannon-culverin” was “a little less than 2 mm in wall thickness and 4.25 feet in length; it was mounted on wood like a weapon
used off the shoulder”. However, until 13 April 1874, a lack of resources prevented him from testing it. He finally did so in
Madrid’s Casa de Campo Park, but the weapon was destroyed in the process.
Monturiol understood the reasons for the failure but was unable to obtain further resources that would allow him to make the needed improvements. Upon his death, Monturiol left behind numerous devices, protocols, and studies that were completely finished, others that were nearly so, and even more that were still in the planning phase. Among those completely finished projects are those based on his chemical investigations. One such project
Conclusion
The first battery-powered electric submarine, the Ictineo I, marked a significant milestone in the history of submarines. Its innovative electric battery system paved the way for future advancements in underwater technology. The Ictineo I is a testament to human ingenuity and the relentless pursuit of exploring the depths of the ocean.
It is widely assumed that the end of the project of the two Ictineus represents the end of Monturiol’s work.
As shown here, however, this assertion is not true, neither from the perspective of his political and social commitments nor based on his intellectual pursuits and seemingly infinite capacity for invention. The near-mythic status of Monturiol lies in his lone attempts at underwater navigation, in the lack of comprehension that stymied the realization of his ideas, and in the attempts by his associates and by those who followed at usurping his merit and his due benefits as an innovator. Throughout his professional life, Monturiol was closely linked to the world of professional engineering, then an emerging field in Catalonia.
In this regard, he represents the transition between practical engineering and professional or technical scientific academic engineering. Finally, Monturiol was a man of commitment throughout the course of his life. He maintained his socialist and republican convictions, even when they stood in the way of realizing his technological endeavors.